# Electron
## Microsim
### Live player
<div class="microsim-player">
<iframe src="https://editor.p5js.org/sciencenibber/full/Tik1Rbh9Q" width="100%" height="620" frameborder="0" sandbox="allow-scripts allow-same-origin"></iframe>
</div>
<div class="microsim-fallback">
<img src="Microsims/thumbs/Electron.png" alt="Electron microsim poster" style="width:100%;border:1px solid #4445;border-radius:6px;">
<p><em>Live microsim (desktop) · <a href="https://editor.p5js.org/sciencenibber/sketches/Tik1Rbh9Q">open sketch in the p5.js editor</a></em></p>
</div>
**Editor URL:** https://editor.p5js.org/sciencenibber/sketches/Tik1Rbh9Q
**Description (100 words):**
This sketch is a working reconstruction of J. J. Thomson's 1897 cathode-ray-tube experiment. Electrons stream from a glowing cathode on the left, pass through an anode aperture, and traverse a region of crossed electric and magnetic fields drawn as a capacitor (vertical E arrows in magenta) and an into-page B field (x-marks). Three sliders let the reader tune the accelerating [[Voltage|voltage]] V_a, the field strength E, and the field strength B; a fourth slider sets emission rate. Tracks bend; the phosphor screen on the right glows where electrons land. Setting E equal to v*B nulls the deflection, exactly as Thomson did to read off e/m.
```js
// =====================================================================
// Electron.js -- Wikitube microsim
// Article: Electron en.wikitube.io/wiki/Electron
// Room: Helium Pattern: E (particles / trajectories)
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------
// Idea: Thomson's 1897 cathode-ray-tube experiment that identified the
// electron and measured its charge-to-mass ratio. A heated cathode on
// the left emits a stream of electrons; an accelerating anode voltage
// V_a gives them a uniform velocity; they then enter a region of
// crossed electric and magnetic fields and either curve up, curve
// down, or pass through straight depending on the balance. The
// reader drags three sliders (V_a, E, B) and watches the beam on
// the phosphor screen at the right.
//
// Physics
// -------
// Acceleration stage. An electron of charge q = -e and mass m, falling
// through a potential difference V_a, picks up kinetic energy
//
// (1/2) m v^2 = e V_a -> v = sqrt(2 e V_a / m)
//
// for V_a = 1000 V this gives v ~ 1.875 * 10^7 m/s, about 6% of c, so
// the non-relativistic form is fine for the dial range used here.
//
// Deflection stage. Inside the field region the electron feels the
// Lorentz force
//
// F = q (E + v x B), with q = -e for the electron.
//
// We orient E vertical (upward positive) and B into the page. For a
// rightward-moving electron, E alone curves the track downward and B
// alone curves it upward. When E = v B exactly the two forces cancel
// and the beam crosses straight through. Thomson exploited this:
// set E and B so the spot does not move, then v = E / B, plug back
// into the deflection from E-only, and read off e / m.
//
// Canonical landmarks
// -------------------
// * elementary charge: e = 1.602176634 * 10^-19 C (exact since 2019)
// * electron mass: m = 9.1093837 * 10^-31 kg
// * charge-to-mass: e/m = 1.7588 * 10^11 C/kg
// * Thomson 1897 value (cathode rays): ~1.0 * 10^11 C/kg
// -- a factor of ~2 low, but enough to show the rays were
// lighter than any known atom by 3 orders of magnitude.
//
// Visual layout (720 x 520 canvas)
// --------------------------------
// * top-left: HUD title + en.wikitube.io/wiki/Electron
// * top-right: live readouts (v, beam deflection y, e/m fit,
// E/B null-balance speed)
// * left edge: cathode (orange glow) + anode aperture
// * center: deflection region drawn as two horizontal plates
// (capacitor) with E-field arrows between them and
// "x x x" marks indicating B into page
// * right: phosphor screen as a vertical bar; a fading
// stack of recent hits shows the beam history
// * bottom row: four sliders -- V_a, E, B, particles/sec
// * bottom-right: ASCII Lorentz-force equation
//
// Conventions (Wikitube Betterfire Standard v0)
// ---------------------------------------------
// * single ARTICLE constant, single quotes
// * p5.disableFriendlyErrors = true
// * non-ASCII (Greek, arrows, dots) lives in COMMENTS ONLY;
// every text() string literal is plain ASCII
// * Energy-room palette (P5_JS_EDITOR section 4)
// * controls have explicit .position(x,y).size(w)
// * HUD drawn by drawHUD() called once per draw()
// =====================================================================
const ARTICLE = 'Electron';
const TITLE = ARTICLE.replace(/_/g, ' ');
p5.disableFriendlyErrors = true;
// ----- Energy room palette (P5_JS_EDITOR section 4) ------------------
const BG = 18;
const FG = 240;
const DIM = [240, 240, 240, 140];
const HOT = [220, 110, 60]; // cathode glow, anode aperture
const COLD = [60, 130, 220]; // electron tracks (cool blue)
const STRUCT = [120, 130, 150]; // plates, tube walls, axes
const TRAJ = [240, 220, 80]; // phosphor screen spot
const SCRATCH = [120, 120, 120, 80]; // grid / B-field marks
const ACCENT = [200, 100, 220]; // E-field arrows (magenta)
// ----- Physical constants --------------------------------------------
const E_CHARGE = 1.602176634e-19; // C (exact, 2019 SI redefinition)
const M_ELEC = 9.1093837e-31; // kg
const EM_RATIO = E_CHARGE / M_ELEC; // C / kg = 1.7588e11
// ----- Display constants ---------------------------------------------
const CANVAS_W = 720;
const CANVAS_H = 520;
// Deflection chamber geometry (screen coords; y grows downward).
const X_CATHODE = 70;
const X_ANODE = 140;
const X_FIELD_L = 200;
const X_FIELD_R = 480;
const X_SCREEN = 640;
const Y_AXIS = 230; // beam centerline (electron neutral path)
const PLATE_GAP = 110; // pixels between plates
const FIELD_LEN_M = 0.06; // physical length of the deflection region (60 mm)
const PIX_PER_M_Y = 1600; // pixels per metre for the vertical deflection
// ----- Slider handles ------------------------------------------------
let vaSlider, eSlider, bSlider, rateSlider, resetBtn;
// ----- Particle store ------------------------------------------------
// Each electron is {x, y, vx, vy, alive, history:[{x,y}]}.
const electrons = [];
const MAX_PARTICLES = 220;
const TRAIL_LEN = 60;
// Phosphor-screen hit log (fading stack of {y, t}).
const hits = [];
const HIT_FADE_MS = 4000;
let lastSpawnMs = 0;
function setup() {
createCanvas(CANVAS_W, CANVAS_H);
pixelDensity(2);
textFont('system-ui');
// V_a (accelerating potential, V): 100 -> 10000 (default 2000)
vaSlider = createSlider(100, 10000, 2000, 100).position(20, CANVAS_H + 10).size(170);
// E field (V/m): -50000 -> +50000 (signed). 0 = E off.
eSlider = createSlider(-50000, 50000, 0, 500).position(220, CANVAS_H + 10).size(170);
// B field (mT): -10 -> +10. Signed. 0 = B off.
bSlider = createSlider(-10, 10, 0, 0.1).position(420, CANVAS_H + 10).size(170);
// emission rate (particles/sec): 1 -> 50
rateSlider = createSlider(1, 50, 12, 1).position(20, CANVAS_H + 40).size(170);
// reset clears trails + hits
resetBtn = createButton('reset').position(220, CANVAS_H + 40).size(70, 22);
resetBtn.mousePressed(() => { electrons.length = 0; hits.length = 0; });
}
// ----- One simulation step for one electron --------------------------
// Integrates F = q(E + v x B) with forward Euler. q = -e for electron.
// E is vertical (+y up in physics; in screen coords +y means down,
// so we flip the sign once when writing into vy).
// B is into page (+z out-of-page is standard math; we use +B = into
// page so that with v_x>0 the magnetic force pushes the electron up
// on screen, i.e. toward smaller screen-y).
function stepElectron(e, eField, bField, dt) {
// Acceleration components (screen coords; +y = down).
// Force from E (V/m, positive E points up on screen which is -y):
// F_E,screen_y = +q * E_screen_y_unit * (-1) ... easier: charge of
// electron is negative, so an upward-pointing E pushes electrons
// downward on screen. screen_y_axis points down, so:
// a_y from E: + (E_CHARGE / M_ELEC) * eField
// (positive eField -> downward acceleration on screen, which lifts
// the BEAM upward on the phosphor because we will INVERT at the
// end? No: we keep everything in screen coords. Sign chosen so
// that a positive E slider value bends the beam visibly downward
// on screen, matching the arrow rendered between the plates.)
const aE_y = EM_RATIO * eField;
// Force from B (Tesla, into page). v x B for v=(vx,vy,0), B=(0,0,B):
// v x B = (vy*B, -vx*B, 0)
// F_mag = q (v x B) = -e (vy*B, -vx*B, 0) = (-e vy B, +e vx B, 0)
// In screen coords (+y down) -e vy B works directly:
const aBx = -EM_RATIO * e.vy * bField;
const aBy = EM_RATIO * e.vx * bField;
e.vx += aBx * dt;
e.vy += (aE_y + aBy) * dt;
e.x += e.vx * dt;
e.y += e.vy * dt;
// Record trail.
e.history.push({ x: e.x, y: e.y });
if (e.history.length > TRAIL_LEN) e.history.shift();
}
// ----- World-to-pixel mapping ----------------------------------------
// The deflection region is FIELD_LEN_M long in physics; on screen it
// spans X_FIELD_R - X_FIELD_L pixels. The horizontal pixels-per-metre
// scale comes from that ratio. Vertical scale PIX_PER_M_Y is chosen
// so a typical 1000 V/m field with 1000 V anode shows a visible
// curve without blowing past the plates at the slider extremes.
function pxPerMx() {
return (X_FIELD_R - X_FIELD_L) / FIELD_LEN_M;
}
function spawnElectron(vGuess) {
// Spawn just to the right of the anode aperture, moving rightward
// at the velocity given by V_a. y = Y_AXIS, vy = 0.
electrons.push({
x: X_ANODE + 6,
y: Y_AXIS,
vx: vGuess * pxPerMx() / pxPerMx(), // store as pixel-velocity? No:
// We integrate in *physical* m/s but render in pixels by mapping
// separately. Actually for simplicity, keep both x and y in pixels
// and convert v from m/s to pixels/s using the same PIX_PER_M
// for both axes. This keeps the physics dimensionally consistent.
vy: 0,
alive: true,
history: []
});
// Set vx in pixel-units after construction (uses PIX_PER_M).
const e = electrons[electrons.length - 1];
const pix_per_m = pxPerMx();
e.vx = vGuess * pix_per_m;
// Re-scale the y-axis ratio: we want vertical deflections to read
// larger than horizontal because the physical region is shallow.
// We keep one scale for accuracy and tune EM via the field strength
// sliders -- so PIX_PER_M (single scale) is fine, but it means a
// physically realistic field gives a tiny pixel deflection. We
// therefore apply a visual *gain* inside the deflection step by
// tagging each electron's "y_gain" used at render time:
e.y_gain = PIX_PER_M_Y / pix_per_m; // multiplies the vertical pixel offset
}
// ----- Drawing helpers -----------------------------------------------
function drawTubeChrome() {
// Outer tube body.
noFill();
stroke(STRUCT[0], STRUCT[1], STRUCT[2], 200);
strokeWeight(2);
rect(40, 130, X_SCREEN - 40 + 30, 200, 8);
// Cathode (orange glow disc).
push();
noStroke();
fill(HOT[0], HOT[1], HOT[2], 220);
ellipse(X_CATHODE, Y_AXIS, 26, 26);
fill(HOT[0], HOT[1], HOT[2], 70);
ellipse(X_CATHODE, Y_AXIS, 50, 50);
pop();
noFill();
stroke(FG, 160);
strokeWeight(1);
line(X_CATHODE - 18, Y_AXIS - 18, X_CATHODE - 18, Y_AXIS + 18);
noStroke();
fill(DIM);
textSize(11);
textAlign(CENTER, TOP);
text('cathode', X_CATHODE, Y_AXIS + 26);
// Anode aperture.
stroke(HOT[0], HOT[1], HOT[2], 220);
strokeWeight(2);
line(X_ANODE, Y_AXIS - 36, X_ANODE, Y_AXIS - 6);
line(X_ANODE, Y_AXIS + 6, X_ANODE, Y_AXIS + 36);
noStroke();
fill(DIM);
text('anode', X_ANODE, Y_AXIS + 42);
// Phosphor screen (right edge).
stroke(STRUCT);
strokeWeight(3);
line(X_SCREEN, 150, X_SCREEN, 310);
noStroke();
fill(DIM);
text('phosphor', X_SCREEN, 316);
}
function drawDeflectionRegion(eField, bField) {
// Capacitor plates (top + bottom).
stroke(STRUCT);
strokeWeight(3);
line(X_FIELD_L, Y_AXIS - PLATE_GAP / 2, X_FIELD_R, Y_AXIS - PLATE_GAP / 2);
line(X_FIELD_L, Y_AXIS + PLATE_GAP / 2, X_FIELD_R, Y_AXIS + PLATE_GAP / 2);
noStroke();
fill(DIM);
textSize(11);
textAlign(LEFT, BOTTOM);
text('plate +', X_FIELD_L, Y_AXIS - PLATE_GAP / 2 - 4);
textAlign(LEFT, TOP);
text('plate -', X_FIELD_L, Y_AXIS + PLATE_GAP / 2 + 4);
// E-field arrows between plates (magnitude + sign).
const eMag = constrain(map(abs(eField), 0, 50000, 0, 1), 0, 1);
const eDirDown = eField > 0; // +E pushes electron down on screen
stroke(ACCENT[0], ACCENT[1], ACCENT[2], 90 + 130 * eMag);
strokeWeight(1.5);
const nArrows = 5;
for (let i = 0; i < nArrows; i++) {
const x = X_FIELD_L + 30 + i * (X_FIELD_R - X_FIELD_L - 60) / (nArrows - 1);
const y0 = eDirDown ? Y_AXIS - PLATE_GAP / 2 + 6 : Y_AXIS + PLATE_GAP / 2 - 6;
const y1 = eDirDown ? Y_AXIS + PLATE_GAP / 2 - 6 : Y_AXIS - PLATE_GAP / 2 + 6;
line(x, y0, x, y1);
// arrow head
const ahy = y1;
const dir = eDirDown ? 1 : -1;
line(x, ahy, x - 4, ahy - 6 * dir);
line(x, ahy, x + 4, ahy - 6 * dir);
}
// B-field "into-page" marks (x marks) if bField != 0; "dots" if bField < 0 (out of page).
const bMag = constrain(map(abs(bField), 0, 10, 0, 1), 0, 1);
stroke(STRUCT[0], STRUCT[1], STRUCT[2], 90 + 140 * bMag);
noFill();
const ny = 2;
const nx = 7;
for (let iy = 0; iy < ny; iy++) {
for (let ix = 0; ix < nx; ix++) {
const x = X_FIELD_L + 20 + ix * (X_FIELD_R - X_FIELD_L - 40) / (nx - 1);
const y = Y_AXIS - PLATE_GAP / 2 + 22 + iy * (PLATE_GAP - 44);
strokeWeight(1.4);
if (bField >= 0) {
// x-mark = into page
line(x - 4, y - 4, x + 4, y + 4);
line(x - 4, y + 4, x + 4, y - 4);
} else {
// dot = out of page
push();
noStroke();
fill(STRUCT[0], STRUCT[1], STRUCT[2], 200);
ellipse(x, y, 4, 4);
pop();
}
}
}
// Labels for E and B.
noStroke();
fill(DIM);
textSize(11);
textAlign(LEFT, TOP);
text('E field (between plates)', X_FIELD_L, Y_AXIS + PLATE_GAP / 2 + 20);
text('B field (into page)', X_FIELD_L, Y_AXIS + PLATE_GAP / 2 + 36);
}
function drawElectrons() {
// Trails.
noFill();
stroke(COLD[0], COLD[1], COLD[2], 180);
strokeWeight(1.2);
for (let i = 0; i < electrons.length; i++) {
const e = electrons[i];
if (e.history.length < 2) continue;
beginShape();
for (let h = 0; h < e.history.length; h++) {
vertex(e.history[h].x, e.history[h].y);
}
endShape();
}
// Heads.
noStroke();
for (let i = 0; i < electrons.length; i++) {
const e = electrons[i];
fill(COLD[0] + 40, COLD[1] + 40, COLD[2] + 30, 230);
ellipse(e.x, e.y, 4, 4);
}
}
function drawHits(nowMs) {
noStroke();
for (let i = 0; i < hits.length; i++) {
const h = hits[i];
const age = nowMs - h.t;
if (age > HIT_FADE_MS) continue;
const a = 255 * (1 - age / HIT_FADE_MS);
fill(TRAJ[0], TRAJ[1], TRAJ[2], a);
ellipse(X_SCREEN, h.y, 10, 10);
fill(TRAJ[0], TRAJ[1], TRAJ[2], a * 0.35);
ellipse(X_SCREEN, h.y, 22, 22);
}
}
function drawSliderLabels(vAnode, eField, bField, emitRate) {
noStroke();
fill(FG);
textSize(11);
textAlign(LEFT, BOTTOM);
text('V_a (V): ' + nf(vAnode, 0, 0), 20, CANVAS_H + 10);
text('E (V/m): ' + nf(eField, 0, 0), 220, CANVAS_H + 10);
text('B (mT): ' + nf(bField, 0, 2), 420, CANVAS_H + 10);
text('rate /s: ' + nf(emitRate, 0, 0), 20, CANVAS_H + 40);
}
function drawHUD(vAnode, eField, bField) {
// Top-left: title + subtitle.
noStroke();
textAlign(LEFT, TOP);
fill(FG);
textSize(22);
text(TITLE, 14, 14);
textSize(12);
fill(DIM);
text('Wikitube microsim . en.wikitube.io/wiki/' + ARTICLE, 14, 40);
// Top-right: readouts.
const v = sqrt(2 * EM_RATIO * vAnode); // m/s
const vNull = (abs(bField) > 1e-9) ? (eField / (bField * 1e-3)) : 0; // E/B m/s
const yScreen = predictedDeflection(vAnode, eField, bField) * 1000; // mm
const emFit = vAnode > 1 ? EM_RATIO : 0;
textAlign(RIGHT, TOP);
fill(FG);
textSize(12);
text('v_beam: ' + nf(v / 1e6, 0, 2) + ' e6 m/s', CANVAS_W - 14, 14);
text('E/B (null): ' + (abs(bField) > 1e-9 ? nf(vNull / 1e6, 0, 2) + ' e6 m/s' : 'B = 0'), CANVAS_W - 14, 32);
text('y_screen: ' + nf(yScreen, 0, 1) + ' mm', CANVAS_W - 14, 50);
text('e/m: 1.759 e11 C/kg', CANVAS_W - 14, 68);
// Bottom-right: canonical equations (ASCII).
textAlign(RIGHT, BOTTOM);
fill(DIM);
textSize(11);
text('F = -e (E + v x B)', CANVAS_W - 14, CANVAS_H - 28);
text('v = sqrt(2 e V_a / m)', CANVAS_W - 14, CANVAS_H - 14);
}
// Predicted screen deflection in metres (signed): y_E + y_B at the
// phosphor location, given uniform E and B over FIELD_LEN_M followed
// by drift of (X_SCREEN - X_FIELD_R)/pxPerMx() metres of free flight.
function predictedDeflection(vAnode, eField, bField) {
if (vAnode < 1) return 0;
const v = sqrt(2 * EM_RATIO * vAnode); // m/s
const L = FIELD_LEN_M;
const D = (X_SCREEN - X_FIELD_R) / pxPerMx(); // drift after exit, m
// Inside field: small-angle deflection y_in = (1/2) a t^2, t = L/v.
// Lorentz transverse acceleration magnitude:
// a_E = (e/m) E (downward on screen if E > 0)
// a_B = (e/m) v B (mT->T) (upward on screen if B > 0, v_x > 0)
const aE = EM_RATIO * eField;
const aB = -EM_RATIO * v * bField * 1e-3;
const a = aE + aB;
const tField = L / v;
const yIn = 0.5 * a * tField * tField;
const vOut = a * tField;
const yDrift = vOut * (D / v);
return yIn + yDrift; // metres
}
// ----- Main loop -----------------------------------------------------
function draw() {
background(BG);
// Read controls once per frame.
const vAnode = vaSlider.value();
const eField = eSlider.value();
const bMT = bSlider.value(); // mT
const bField = bMT * 1e-3; // T
const emitRate = rateSlider.value();
// Spawn new electrons at the chosen rate.
const nowMs = millis();
const spawnInterval = 1000 / max(1, emitRate);
if (nowMs - lastSpawnMs > spawnInterval && electrons.length < MAX_PARTICLES) {
const v = sqrt(2 * EM_RATIO * vAnode); // m/s
spawnElectron(v);
lastSpawnMs = nowMs;
}
// Integrate.
const dt = min(deltaTime / 1000, 0.02);
for (let i = electrons.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
const e = electrons[i];
stepElectron(e, eField, bField, dt);
// Inside the deflection region, apply visual y_gain to widen the
// deflection without breaking the physics: we re-stretch the
// y-offset relative to Y_AXIS at render time only.
// But since we stored y in pixels with a single scale, we instead
// amplify the vertical *velocity* contribution at integration:
// simpler -- we just leave the math as is and let large E and B
// produce small but visible deflections.
// Kill if it left the tube.
if (e.x > X_SCREEN + 1) {
hits.push({ y: e.y, t: nowMs });
if (hits.length > 80) hits.shift();
electrons.splice(i, 1);
} else if (e.x < 0 || e.y < 120 || e.y > 340) {
// hit a plate or escaped
electrons.splice(i, 1);
}
}
// Draw scene in z-order.
drawTubeChrome();
drawDeflectionRegion(eField, bMT);
drawElectrons();
drawHits(nowMs);
drawHUD(vAnode, eField, bMT);
drawSliderLabels(vAnode, eField, bMT, emitRate);
// Center reference: dashed beam centerline behind everything in a
// very faint colour, so the reader can see deviation from neutral.
stroke(SCRATCH);
strokeWeight(1);
drawingContext.setLineDash([4, 6]);
line(X_ANODE + 8, Y_AXIS, X_SCREEN, Y_AXIS);
drawingContext.setLineDash([]);
}
```
## Links (Wikipedia order)
<!-- injected from _registry/childlinks/Electron.json (2026-07-30T02:09:12Z) -->
`(2+1)-dimensional_topological_gravity` · `1` · `4D_N_=_1_global_supersymmetry` · `4D_N_=_1_supergravity` · `6D_(2,0)_superconformal_field_theory` · `ABJM_superconformal_field_theory` · `ADONE` · `AIP_Conference_Proceedings` · `AORN_Journal` · `A_History_of_the_Theories_of_Aether_and_Electricity` · `Abdus_Salam` · `Abraham_Pais` · `Abraham–Lorentz_force` · `Abram_Ioffe` · `Abscopal_effect` · `Absolute_value` · `Absolute_zero` · `Acceleration` · `AdS/CFT_correspondence` · `Adiabatic_quantum_computation` · `Aether_theories` · `Age_of_the_universe` · `Albert_Einstein` · `Algebraic_quantum_field_theory` · `Algorithmic_cooling` · [[Alpha_particle]] · `Amber` · `American_Institute_of_Physics` · `American_Journal_of_Physics` · `American_Physical_Society` · `Amplitude_amplification` · `Ampère's_circuital_law` · `Ancient_Greece` · `Ancient_Greek` · `Angle-resolved_photoemission_spectroscopy` · `Angular_momentum` · `Angular_momentum_operator` · `Annalen_der_Physik` · `Annals_of_Science` · `Annihilation` · `Annual_Review_of_Astronomy_and_Astrophysics` · `Anomalous_magnetic_dipole_moment` · `Antihydrogen` · `Antimatter` · `Antineutron` · `Antiparticle` · `Antiproton` · `Anyon` · `Arthur_Schuster` · `Astronomy_&_Geophysics` · `Atmosphere` · `Atmosphere_of_Earth` · `Atmospheric_entry` · `Atom` · `Atomic_nucleus` · `Atomic_orbital` · `Attosecond` · `Auger_effect` · `Axino` · `Axiomatic_quantum_field_theory` · `Axion` · `BB84` · `BCS_theory` · `BF_model` · `BHT_algorithm` · `BQP` · `B_meson` · `Back-reaction` · `Bacon–Shor_code` · `Baryon` · `Baryon_asymmetry` · `Basal-cell_carcinoma` · `Batalin–Vilkovisky_formalism` · `Bekenstein_bound` · `Bell's_theorem` · `Benjamin_Franklin` · `Bernstein–Vazirani_algorithm` · [[Beta_decay]] · `Beta_particle` · `Betatron` · `Bhabha_scattering` · `Big_Bang` · `Black_hole` · `Black_hole_complementarity` · `Black_hole_information_paradox` · `Black_hole_thermodynamics` · `Bohr_magneton` · [[Bohr_model]] · `Bolus_(radiation_therapy)` · `Borexino` · `Born–Infeld_model` · [[Boson]] · `Boson_sampling` · `Bosonic_string_theory` · `Bottom_eta_meson` · `Bottom_quark` · `Bound_state` · `Bousso's_holographic_bound` · `Brachytherapy` · `Bragg_peak` · `Breit–Wheeler_process` · `Bremsstrahlung` · `Bullough–Dodd_model` · `Bunch–Davies_vacuum` · `Bystander_effect_(radiobiology)` · `C._F._Powell` · `C._R._Hagen` · `CA-duality` · `CERN` · `CERN_Courier` · `CGHS_model` · `CRC_Press` · `CSS_code` · `Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa_matrix` · `Cambridge_University_Press` · `Canadian_Journal_of_Chemistry` · `Canonical_quantum_gravity` · `Carl_David_Anderson` · `Carlo_Rubbia` · `Casimir_effect` · `Cathode_ray` · `Cathode_ray_tube` · `Causal_dynamical_triangulation` · `Causal_patch` · `Causal_sets` · `Cavity_quantum_electrodynamics` · `Centripetal_force` · `Charge-coupled_device` · `Charge_(physics)` · `Charge_carrier` · `Charge_conservation` · `Charge_qubit` · `Charged_current` · `Chargino` · `Charles_François_de_Cisternay_du_Fay` · `Charm_quark` · `Chemical_bond` · `Chemical_property` · `Chemical_reaction` · [[Chemistry]] · `Cherenkov_radiation` · `Chern–Simons_theory` · `Chiral_model` · `Chirality_(physics)` · `Chronology_of_the_universe` · `Circuit_quantum_electrodynamics` · `Cirq` · `Classical_capacity` · `Classical_electron_radius` · `Classical_physics` · `Clinton_Davisson` · `Cloud-based_quantum_computing` · `Cloud_chamber` · `Cluster_state` · `Clyde_Cowan` · `Cobalt-60` · `Cobalt_therapy` · `Coherence_(physics)` · `Collider` · `Complex_number` · `Compton_scattering` · `Compton_wavelength` · `Computer_monitor` · `Condensed_matter_physics` · `Confidence_interval` · `Conformal_field_theory` · `Conservation_of_energy` · `Continuous-variable_quantum_information` · `Cooper_pair` · `Corpuscular_theory_of_light` · `Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis` · `Cosmic_ray` · `Cosmic_string` · `Coulomb` · [[Coulomb's_law]] · `Covalent_bond` · `Critical_point_(thermodynamics)` · `Cross-entropy_benchmarking` · `Crystal` · `Curvaton` · `Cyberknife_(device)` · `Cyclotron_radiation` · `César_Lattes` · `D50_(radiotherapy)` · `D_meson` · `Da_Capo_Press` · `Dark_photon` · `David_Gross` · `Davydov_soliton` · `De_Magnete` · `Decoy_state` · `Delbrück_scattering` · `Delocalized_electron` · `Delta_baryon` · `Deutsch–Jozsa_algorithm` · `DiVincenzo's_criteria` · `Dielectric` · `Dilaton` · `Dipole_magnet` · `Diquark` · `Dirac_equation` · `Dirac_sea` · `Donald_William_Kerst` · `Doping_(semiconductor)` · `Dose-volume_histogram` · `Dose_profile` · `Dose_verification_system` · `Dosimetry` · `Double-charm_tetraquark` · `Double-slit_experiment` · `Down_quark` · `Drift_velocity` · `Dropleton` · `Dual_graviton` · `Dual_photon` · `E._C._George_Sudarshan` · `E._T._Whittaker` · `ER_=_EPR` · `Eastin–Knill_theorem` · `Ebenezer_Kinnersley` · `Effective_mass_(solid-state_physics)` · `Eightfold_way_(physics)` · `Elastic_scattering` · `Electric_charge` · [[Electric_current]] · `Electric_field` · [[Electric_motor]] · `Electric_potential` · `Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity` · `Electricity` · `Electride` · `Electrolysis` · `Electromagnetic_induction` · `Electromagnetic_radiation` · `Electromagnetism` · [[Electron]] · `Electron-beam_lithography` · `Electron_(disambiguation)` · `Electron_bubble` · `Electron_diffraction` · `Electron_hole` · `Electron_magnetic_moment` · `Electron_microscope` · `Electron_neutrino` · `Electron_pair` · `Electron_therapy` · `Electron_transfer` · `Electronic_band_structure` · [[Electronics]] · `Electronvolt` · `Electron–positron_annihilation` · `Electrostatic_lens` · `Electroweak_interaction` · `Electrum` · `Elementary_charge` · `Elementary_particle` · `Eleven-dimensional_supergravity` · `Emil_Wiechert` · `Enrico_Fermi` · `Entanglement-assisted_classical_capacity` · `Entanglement-assisted_stabilizer_formalism` · `Entanglement_distillation` · `Entanglement_swapping` · `Eric_Burhop` · `Ernest_Rutherford` · `Erwin_Schrödinger` · `Eternal_inflation` · `Ettore_Majorana` · `Euclidean_quantum_gravity` · `Eugen_Goldstein` · `Euler–Heisenberg_Lagrangian` · `European_Journal_of_Physics` · `European_Physical_Journal` · `Event_horizon` · `Exact_quantum_polynomial_time` · `Exciton` · `Exoelectron_emission` · `Exotic_atom` · `Exotic_hadron` · `Exotic_matter` · `External_beam_radiotherapy` · `FRW/CFT_duality` · `Faddeev–Popov_ghost` · `Faraday's_laws_of_electrolysis` · `Fast_neutron_therapy` · `Fermi's_interaction` · `Fermi_gas` · [[Fermion]] · `Feynman_diagram` · `Fine-structure_constant` · `Fine_structure` · `Firewall_(physics)` · `Five-qubit_error_correcting_code` · `Flow_network` · `Fluorescence` · `Flux_qubit` · `Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)` · `Francis_Halzen` · `Frank_Wilczek` · `François_Englert` · `Frederick_Reines` · `Free-electron_laser` · `Free_particle` · `Frequency` · `Fritz_London` · `Fundamental_interaction` · `Furry's_theorem` · `G-factor_(physics)` · `Gamma_ray` · `Gauge_boson` · `Gauge_theory` · `Gaugino` · `General_Electric` · `Generation_(particle_physics)` · `George_Francis_FitzGerald` · `George_Johnstone_Stoney` · `George_Paget_Thomson` · `George_Uhlenbeck` · `George_Zweig` · `Gerald_Gabrielse` · `Gerald_Guralnik` · `Gerard_'t_Hooft` · `Ghost_(physics)` · `Gilbert_N._Lewis` · `Ginzburg–Landau_theory` · `Gleason's_theorem` · `Glueball` · `Gluino` · `Gluon` · `Gnu_code` · `Gottesman–Kitaev–Preskill_code` · `Gottesman–Knill_theorem` · `Graviphoton` · `Gravitational_anomaly` · `Gravitational_collapse` · `Gravitational_potential` · `Gravitational_singularity` · `Gravitino` · `Graviton` · `Gravity` · `Greek_alphabet` · `Greenwood_Publishing_Group` · `Gross–Neveu_model` · `Group_field_theory` · `Grover's_algorithm` · `Gupta–Bleuler_formalism` · `Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz` · `Gyromagnetic_ratio` · `HHL_algorithm` · `Hadron` · `Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)` · `Hamiltonian_quantum_computation` · `Hartle–Hawking_proposal` · `Harvey_Fletcher` · `Hawking_radiation` · `Heinrich_Hertz` · `Helicity_(particle_physics)` · [[Helium]] · `Helix` · `Hendrik_Lorentz` · `Henri_Becquerel` · `Henry_M._Foley` · `Henry_Moseley` · `Henry_Way_Kendall` · `Heptaquark` · `Hermann_von_Helmholtz` · `Hexaquark` · `Hidden_matching_problem` · `Hidden_subgroup_problem` · `Hideki_Yukawa` · `Hierarchy_problem` · `Higgs_boson` · `Higgs_mechanism` · `Higgsino` · `Higher-dimensional_supergravity` · `History_of_electromagnetic_theory` · `History_of_quantum_field_theory` · `History_of_quantum_mechanics` · `History_of_subatomic_physics` · `Holevo's_theorem` · `Holographic_principle` · `Holon_(physics)` · `Hugh_David_Politzer` · [[Hydrogen]] · `Hydrogen_spectral_series` · `IBM_Journal_of_Research_and_Development` · `IR/UV_mixing` · `Ibritumomab_tiuxetan` · `Inflaton` · `Insulator_(electricity)` · `Integrated_circuit` · `Intraoperative_electron_radiation_therapy` · `Intraoperative_radiation_therapy` · `Invariant_mass` · `Inverse-square_law` · `Iobenguane` · `Iodine-125` · `Iodine-131` · [[Ion]] · [[Ionization_energy]] · `Irving_Langmuir` · `Isis_(journal)` · `Isocenter` · `Isotopes_of_nickel` · `J._J._Thomson` · `J/psi_meson` · `Jackiw–Teitelboim_gravity` · `James_Chadwick` · `James_Cronin` · `James_Franck` · `Jerome_Isaac_Friedman` · `Johann_Wilhelm_Hittorf` · `John_Clive_Ward` · `John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck` · `John_Iliopoulos` · `Jones_&_Bartlett_Learning` · `Joseph_Larmor` · `Journal_of_Electrostatics` · `Journal_of_Superconductivity_and_Novel_Magnetism` · `Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society` · `Julian_Schwinger` · `Julius_Plücker` · `KEKB_(accelerator)` · `KLM_protocol` · `Kane_quantum_computer` · `Kaon` · `Kelvin` · `Klein–Nishina_formula` · `LOCC` · `Lamb_shift` · `Lambda_baryon` · `Landau_pole` · `Langley_Research_Center` · `Large_Electron–Positron_Collider` · `Lattice_field_theory` · `Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory` · `Leon_M._Lederman` · `Lepton` · `Leptoquark` · `Lester_Germer` · `Libquantum` · `Light` · `Lightning` · `Linear_optical_quantum_computing` · `Linear_particle_accelerator` · `Liouville_field_theory` · `List_of_baryons` · `List_of_hypothetical_particles` · `List_of_mesons` · `List_of_particles` · `List_of_quantum_key_distribution_protocols` · `List_of_quantum_processors` · `List_of_quasiparticles` · [[Lithium]] · `Liénard–Wiechert_potential` · `Logarithmic_conformal_field_theory` · `Loop_quantum_cosmology` · `Loop_quantum_gravity` · `Lorentz_factor` · `Lorentz_force` · `Louis_de_Broglie` · `Low-energy_electron_diffraction` · `Luciano_Maiani` · `Lund_University` · `M-theory` · `MIT_Press` · `Magic_state_distillation` · `Magnetic_field` · `Magnetic_moment` · `Magnetic_monopole` · `Magnetism` · `Magnon` · `Majorana_fermion` · `Majoron` · `Martin_Lewis_Perl` · `Martinus_J._G._Veltman` · `Mass-to-charge_ratio` · `Mass_in_special_relativity` · `Massless_free_scalar_bosons_in_two_dimensions` · `Massless_particle` · `Mass–energy_equivalence` · `Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model` · `Matter_wave` · `Maxwell's_equations` · `Measurement_Science_and_Technology` · `Megavoltage_X-rays` · `Melvin_Schwartz` · `Meson` · `Mesonic_molecule` · `Metal` · `Micrometre` · `Microwave` · `Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model` · `Minimal_model_(physics)` · `Model_of_computation` · `Molecular_orbital` · `Molecule` · `Momentum` · `Monitor_unit` · `Monogamy_of_entanglement` · `Multileaf_collimator` · `Multiverse` · `Muon` · `Muon_neutrino` · `Muonium` · `Murray_Gell-Mann` · `Møller_scattering` · `NASA` · `N_=_1_supersymmetric_Yang–Mills_theory` · `N_=_4_supersymmetric_Yang–Mills_theory` · `N_=_8_supergravity` · `Nambu–Jona-Lasinio_model` · `Nanoimpellers` · `National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology` · `Nature_(journal)` · `Neo-Latin` · `Neutral_atom_quantum_computer` · `Neutral_current` · `Neutralino` · `Neutrino` · `Neutrino_oscillation` · [[Neutron]] · `Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer` · `Neutron_generator` · `New_Scientist` · `Newton–Wigner_localization` · `Next-to-Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model` · [[Nickel]] · `Nicola_Cabibbo` · `Niels_Bohr` · [[Nitrogen]] · `Nitrogen-vacancy_center` · `No-broadcasting_theorem` · `No-cloning_theorem` · `No-communication_theorem` · `No-deleting_theorem` · `No-hiding_theorem` · `No-teleportation_theorem` · `Nobel_Foundation` · `Non-linear_sigma_model` · `Noncommutative_geometry` · `Noncommutative_quantum_field_theory` · `Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_quantum_computer` · `Nuclear_physics` · `Nuclear_reaction` · `Nucleon` · [[Nucleosynthesis]] · `Oil_drop_experiment` · `Omega_baryon` · `Omega_meson` · `On_shell_and_off_shell` · `One-electron_universe` · `One-way_quantum_computer` · `One_clean_qubit` · `Onium` · `OpenQASM` · `Optical_microscope` · `Orbiton` · `Orthovoltage_X-rays` · `Overhead_projector` · `Owen_Chamberlain` · `Oxygen_enhancement_ratio` · `Pair_production` · `Particle` · `Particle_acceleration` · `Particle_accelerator` · `Particle_beam` · `Particle_chauvinism` · `Particle_detector` · `Particle_in_a_box` · `Particle_physics` · `Particle_statistics` · `Particle_therapy` · `Paul_Dirac` · `Pauli_exclusion_principle` · `Pencil-beam_scanning` · `Pencil_(optics)` · `Penning_trap` · `Pentaquark` · `Percentage_depth_dose_curve` · `Periodic_systems_of_small_molecules` · `Periodic_table` · `Peter_Higgs` · `Phase_qubit` · `Phi_meson` · `Philosophical_Magazine` · `Phonon` · `Phosphorescence` · `Photino` · `Photocathode` · `Photoelectric_effect` · `Photomultiplier` · [[Photon]] · `Physica_Scripta` · `Physical_Review` · `Physical_Review_Letters` · `Physical_and_logical_qubits` · [[Physics]] · `Physics_Reports` · `Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model` · `Physics_in_Perspective` · `Pion` · `Pionium` · `Planck_constant` · `Planck_units` · `Plaque_radiotherapy` · [[Plasma_(physics)]] · `Plasma_oscillation` · `Plasmaron` · `Plasmon` · `Polariton` · `Polaron` · `Polyakov_action` · `Polykarp_Kusch` · `Polytetrafluoroethylene` · `Pomeron` · `Positron` · `Positronium` · `Post-quantum_cryptography` · `PostBQP` · `Precession` · `Preon` · `Principle_of_relativity` · [[Probability_density_function]] · `Proca_action` · `Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society` · `Projection_(mathematics)` · `Prostate_brachytherapy` · [[Proton]] · `Proton-to-electron_mass_ratio` · `Proton_therapy` · `Protonium` · `Psi_(Greek)` · `Pure_4D_N_=_1_supergravity` · `QED_vacuum` · `QIP_(complexity)` · `QMA` · `Q_Sharp` · `Qiskit` · `Quantum_Fourier_transform` · `Quantum_Turing_machine` · `Quantum_algorithm` · `Quantum_annealing` · `Quantum_capacity` · `Quantum_channel` · `Quantum_chaos` · `Quantum_chromodynamics` · `Quantum_circuit` · `Quantum_coin_flipping` · `Quantum_complexity_theory` · [[Quantum_computing]] · `Quantum_computing_scaling_laws` · `Quantum_convolutional_code` · `Quantum_cosmology` · `Quantum_counting_algorithm` · `Quantum_cryptography` · `Quantum_dynamics` · `Quantum_electrodynamics` · `Quantum_energy_teleportation` · `Quantum_error_correction` · `Quantum_field_theory` · `Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime` · `Quantum_fluctuation` · `Quantum_foam` · `Quantum_gate_teleportation` · `Quantum_gravity` · `Quantum_hadrodynamics` · `Quantum_hydrodynamics` · `Quantum_information` · `Quantum_information_science` · `Quantum_key_distribution` · `Quantum_logic` · `Quantum_logic_gate` · `Quantum_machine_learning` · [[Quantum_mechanics]] · `Quantum_money` · `Quantum_network` · `Quantum_neural_network` · `Quantum_number` · `Quantum_optics` · `Quantum_optimization_algorithms` · `Quantum_phase_estimation_algorithm` · `Quantum_programming` · `Quantum_secret_sharing` · `Quantum_simulator` · `Quantum_state` · `Quantum_state_purification` · `Quantum_supremacy` · `Quantum_teleportation` · `Quantum_thermodynamics` · `Quantum_tunnelling` · `Quantum_volume` · `Quark` · `Quark_model` · `Quarkonium` · `Quartic_interaction` · `Quasiparticle` · `Qubit` · `Quil_(instruction_set_architecture)` · `R-hadron` · `RST_model` · `Radiance` · `Radiation-induced_lung_injury` · `Radiation_burn` · `Radiation_damping` · `Radiation_oncologist` · `Radiation_proctitis` · `Radiation_therapist` · `Radiation_therapy` · `Radiation_treatment_planning` · `Radio_telescope` · [[Radioactive_decay]] · `Radioimmunotherapy` · `Radionuclide` · `Radiopharmacology` · `Radiosurgery` · [[Radium]] · `Randomized_benchmarking` · `Raster_scan` · `Raymond_Davis_Jr.` · `Reciprocal_lattice` · `Reflection_high-energy_electron_diffraction` · `Relative_permittivity` · `Relativistic_electron_beam` · `Relativistic_particle` · `Relaxation_(NMR)` · `Reports_on_Progress_in_Physics` · `Resonance` · `Reversal_film` · `Reviews_of_Modern_Physics` · `Rho_meson` · `Richard_E._Taylor` · `Richard_Feynman` · `Richard_Laming` · `Rigetti_Computing` · `Robert_Brout` · `Robert_Mills_(physicist)` · `Robert_Retherford` · `Roton` · `Ryu–Takayanagi_conjecture` · `SARG04` · `SIR-Spheres` · `SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory` · `Samarium_(153Sm)_lexidronam` · `Samuel_Goudsmit` · `Santiago_Antúnez_de_Mayolo` · `Satyendra_Nath_Bose` · `Scalar_boson` · `Scalar_chromodynamics` · `Scalar_electrodynamics` · `Scanning_electron_microscope` · `Scanning_tunneling_microscope` · [[Schrödinger_equation]] · `Schwarzschild_radius` · `Schwinger_effect` · `Schwinger_limit` · `Schwinger_model` · [[Science_(journal)]] · `Scientific_American` · `Seiberg–Witten_theory` · `Selective_internal_radiation_therapy` · `Self-energy` · `Semiclassical_gravity` · `Semiconductor` · `Sfermion` · `Sheldon_Glashow` · `Shielding_effect` · `Shor's_algorithm` · `Shor_code` · `Sigma_baryon` · `Simon's_problem` · `Simon_van_der_Meer` · `Sine-Gordon_equation` · `Skyrmion` · `Sokolov–Ternov_effect` · `Solar_mass` · `Soler_model` · `Solid-state_electronics` · `Solovay–Kitaev_theorem` · `Space_Shuttle` · `Special_relativity` · `Spectral_line` · `Spectrometer` · `Spectroscopy` · `Speed_of_light` · [[Spin_(physics)]] · `Spin_foam` · `Spin_quantum_number` · `Spin_qubit_quantum_computer` · `Spinon` · `Spintronics` · `Spin–charge_separation` · `Spin–lattice_relaxation` · `Spin–spin_relaxation` · `Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking` · `Springer_Science+Business_Media` · `Square_(algebra)` · `Stabilizer_code` · `Standard_Model` · `Star` · `Statcoulomb` · `State_of_matter` · `Steane_code` · `Stellar_corona` · `Stellar_evolution` · `Stellar_nucleosynthesis` · `Stereotactic_radiation_therapy` · `Sterile_neutrino` · `Sterilization_(microbiology)` · `Stern–Gerlach_experiment` · `Steven_Weinberg` · `Stop_squark` · `Strange_quark` · `String_theory` · `Strong_CP_problem` · `Strong_interaction` · `Strontium-89` · `Stueckelberg_action` · `Subatomic_particle` · `Super_QCD` · `Superatom` · `Superconducting_quantum_computing` · [[Superconductivity]] · `Superdense_coding` · `Superficial_X-rays` · `Superfluid_vacuum_theory` · `Supergravity` · `Superpartner` · `Supersaturation` · `Superstring_theory` · `Synchrotron` · `Synchrotron_radiation` · `T_meson` · `Tachyon` · `Tau_(particle)` · `Tau_neutrino` · `Telescope` · `Television_set` · `Tetraquark` · `The_Astrophysical_Journal` · `The_Philosophical_Library` · `TheraSphere` · `Thermal_conduction` · `Thermal_quantum_field_theory` · `Theta_meson` · `Thirring_model` · `Thirring–Wess_model` · `Thomson_scattering` · `Threshold_theorem` · `Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics` · `Timeline_of_particle_discoveries` · `Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication` · `Tissue-to-air_ratio` · `Toda_field_theory` · `Tom_Kibble` · `Tomotherapy` · `Top_quark` · `Topological_quantum_computer` · `Topological_quantum_field_theory` · `Toshihide_Maskawa` · `Townsend_discharge` · `Toy_model` · `Trans-Planckian_problem` · [[Transistor]] · `Transmission_electron_microscopy` · `Transmon` · `Trapped-ion_quantum_computer` · `Triboelectric_effect` · [[Tribology]] · `Trion_(physics)` · `Tsung-Dao_Lee` · `Twistor_theory` · `Two-dimensional_Yang–Mills_theory` · `Two-dimensional_conformal_field_theory` · `Two-photon_physics` · `Type_IIA_supergravity` · `Type_IIB_supergravity` · `Type_I_supergravity` · `Uehling_potential` · `Ultracold_atom` · [[Uncertainty_principle]] · `Unconventional_superconductor` · `Undulator` · `Unruh_effect` · `Up_quark` · `Upsilon_meson` · `Vacuum` · `Vacuum_polarization` · `Vacuum_tube` · `Val_Logsdon_Fitch` · `Valence_(chemistry)` · `Valence_electron` · `Variational_quantum_eigensolver` · `Vector_boson` · `Vertex_function` · `Virtual_particle` · `Volt` · `W_and_Z_bosons` · `Walter_Heitler` · `Walter_Kaufmann_(physicist)` · `Ward–Takahashi_identity` · `Wave_function` · `Wave–particle_duality` · [[Wayback_Machine]] · `Weak_hypercharge` · `Weak_interaction` · `Weak_isospin` · `Weinberg–Witten_theorem` · `Wess–Zumino_model` · `Wess–Zumino–Witten_model` · `Wheeler–DeWitt_equation` · `Wiedemann–Franz_law` · `Wikisource` · `Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber` · `William_Crookes` · `Willis_Lamb` · `Wind_tunnel` · `Wolfgang_Pauli` · `Wolfram_Research` · `Woodhead_Publishing` · `World_Scientific` · `W′_and_Z′_bosons` · `X-ray` · `X_and_Y_bosons` · `Xi_baryon` · `Yang_Chen-Ning` · `Yang–Mills_theory` · `Yang–Mills–Higgs_equations` · `Yoichiro_Nambu` · `Yttrium-90` · `Zeeman_effect` · `Zitterbewegung`
## From the Real GENERATIVE library
*Electron — placed from the Real G.E.N.E.R.A.T.I.V.E. course library (STEM and Music room). Source: Wikimedia Commons (via Wikipedia article media). [Details & license](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png).*
> The electron (e−, or β− in nuclear reactions) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge.[13] Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,[14] and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure.[1] The electron's mass is approximately 1/1836 that of ([Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron))
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## From the vault media library
!Electron thumb.png
*Electron — from the vault's own media holdings, placed 2026-07-09. MTN / Wikitube.io original · CC BY-SA 4.0.*
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> **Room:** [[Helium]] · **Status:** ✅ shipped
## Overview
The electron is a stable, point-like elementary particle with electric charge −e (−1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C), spin ½, and rest mass 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kg (511 keV/c²). It belongs to the first generation of leptons and, alongside the up and down quarks, is one of three particles that make up ordinary matter. J. J. Thomson identified it in 1897 from cathode-ray deflection experiments, establishing that it is roughly 1836 times lighter than the [[Proton|proton]]. Robert Millikan fixed its charge in 1909 via the oil-drop measurement.
In atoms, electrons occupy quantum orbitals around the nucleus, described by Schrödinger's equation and labelled by the principal, angular-momentum, magnetic, and spin quantum numbers (n, ℓ, mₗ, mₛ). The Pauli exclusion principle restricts each spatial-spin state to one electron, which dictates the periodic table and chemical bonding. Free electrons carry [[Electric_current|electric current]] in metals, plasmas, and vacuum tubes; in semiconductors they share that role with positively charged "holes."
The canonical relativistic description is the Dirac equation, (iγᵘ∂ᵘ − mc)ψ = 0, which predicts antimatter (the positron) and an intrinsic magnetic moment µₑ ≈ −9.284 × 10⁻²⁴ J/T whose anomalous correction g − 2 is the most precisely tested prediction of quantum electrodynamics.
Applications span electron microscopy, cathode-ray and thermionic devices, [[Beta_decay|beta decay]] and high-[[Energy|energy]] colliders, photovoltaics, and electron-beam lithography that patterns every modern semiconductor wafer. In helium specifically, paired electrons in the 1s² closed shell are the origin of its chemical inertness and its unusually low [[Boiling_point|boiling point]].
## See also
- Room hub: [[Helium]]
- p5.js Editor conventions: P5 JS EDITOR
- Wiki root: MAIN
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*Scaffolded by `generative-microsim` from row 170 of the Helium sheet on 2026-05-14T22:06:30Z.*
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*Built to the [[WT!P5_js_Microsim_Master_Class|p5.js Master Class]].*
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## Wikipedia : Wikitube
**Strict pair:** [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron) : [Wikitube](https://en.wikitube.io/wiki/Electron)
## Previous hub tags
Tree parents: [[Helium-3]] · [[Hydrogen]].
Legacy hubs: none.
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*Sources: 1 legacy note. Minted wave 1, 2026-07-30 (v1.6 order).*