# United States Senate *Upper chamber of the United States Congress, with two senators per state* The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the two-house United States Congress. The House of Representatives is the lower chamber, and Article One of the Constitution gives the two chambers joint authority over federal lawmaking.[^1] Only the Senate confirms presidential appointees, approves or rejects treaties, and decides impeachment cases brought by the House.[^1][^2] Every state sends two senators to serve staggered six-year terms, for a total of 100.[^1] In the [[Minnesota]] record, the Senate appears through the state's senators, from Edward Thye, elected in 1946, to Amy Klobuchar, re-elected in 2012.[^3][^4] It also appears through the Senate's confirmations of Warren Burger and Harry Blackmun to federal courts and through its roll calls on civil rights, voting rights, refugee and impeachment measures.[^5][^6][^7] The earliest entry is the Senate's 1854 exoneration of [[Alexander Ramsey]] in the Dakota treaty-fund matter.[^8] ## History The Constitution's framers argued longer over how states would be represented in the Senate than over any other question. Small states that did not want to lose the equal standing they held under the Articles of Confederation prevailed 5–4 in the Connecticut Compromise, which gave every state two senators regardless of population.[^1] The chamber first met in 1789. Article Five bars any amendment that would take away a state's equal Senate vote without that state's consent. The Senate has had 100 members since 1959, when the number of states reached 50.[^1] Until the Seventeenth Amendment took effect in 1913, state legislatures chose senators. Deadlocked legislatures that left seats vacant, factional fights within states, bribery and intimidation built support for direct election. Senators have since been chosen by statewide popular vote.[^1] ## Functions No federal bill becomes law without Senate approval. The Senate's constitutional roles also include advice and consent on certain presidential appointments, consent to treaties, trial of all impeachments, and election of the vice president when no candidate wins a majority of electoral votes.[^1][^2] Either chamber may introduce most bills. The Origination Clause, however, provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives," so the Senate cannot start tax bills. The House also maintains that the Senate may not originate appropriation bills. The Senate has disputed that reading, but the House declines to take up Senate-originated appropriations, which settles the question in practice.[^1] ## Membership Article I, Section 3 sets three requirements for a senator: an age of at least 30, at least nine years of United States citizenship, and residence in the represented state at the time of election. The age and citizenship thresholds are higher than those for House members.[^1] The Senate itself, rather than the courts, judges whether its members are qualified.[^1] ## Officers The vice president is president of the Senate. The vice president is not a member and votes only to break a tie.[^1] The Senate elects a president pro tempore, by custom the majority-party senator with the longest continuous service, to preside when the vice president is absent. In practice, majority-party senators usually take turns in the chair.[^1] Apart from the presiding vice president, the Senate chooses its own officers, who keep order, schedule business and interpret its rules and precedents.[^1] ## Procedure The Senate operates under Standing Rules and relaxes many of them by unanimous consent, usually negotiated in advance by party leaders.[^1] A senator who notifies the leader of an intent to object to a unanimous-consent request places a "hold." A hold may be placed for any reason and lifted at any time. Overcoming one takes slow procedures such as cloture.[^1] The Senate first invoked cloture on a civil rights bill on June 10, 1964, by a vote of 71–29.[^9] ## Senate office buildings Three Senate office buildings stand on Constitution Avenue north of the Capitol: the Russell, Dirksen and Hart buildings.[^1] ## Criticism Critics have described the Senate as unusually counter-majoritarian. They point to two features: apportionment by state rather than population, and the filibuster, which lets a minority block action.[^1] Political scientist Robert Dahl called the chamber's unequal representation a "profound violation of the democratic idea of political equality among citizens."[^1] The gap between the largest and smallest states has widened over time. Virginia had 10 times Rhode Island's population in 1790, while California had 70 times Wyoming's in 2020. Residents of the District of Columbia and the territories have never had Senate representation.[^1] ## In the Minnesota record ### Who - **1854.** [[Alexander Ramsey]]. MNopedia records that Dakota leaders alleged intimidation and fraud in the treaty dealings. It also records that the Senate exonerated Ramsey in 1854 despite evidence from its own investigations suggesting improprieties.[^8] The wording of the February 24, 1854 Senate report is quoted in W. W. Folwell's *A History of Minnesota*. The record does not yet establish that wording from the primary Senate journal.[^8] - **1946.** Edward Thye was elected to the U.S. Senate on November 5, 1946, and [[Luther Youngdahl]] succeeded him as governor.[^3] - **1948–1962.** Hubert H. Humphrey won election to the Senate from Minnesota on November 2, 1948, in a campaign managed by [[Orville Freeman]].[^10] He was seated on January 3, 1949, and assigned to the Labor Committee. He was re-elected in 1954 and had served as Democratic Whip since 1961.[^10] - **1964–1966.** Governor Rolvaag appointed [[Walter Mondale]] on December 30, 1964, to the seat vacated by Humphrey, who had been elected [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]].[^11] Mondale was seated on January 20, 1965, with assignments to the judiciary and labor committees. He won a full term in 1966 with 53.9 percent over Forsythe ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]).[^11] His Senate papers are held by the [[University of Minnesota]] Libraries.[^12] - **1976.** On December 30, 1976, Governor Wendell Anderson left the governorship for the U.S. Senate in an appointment arrangement with Rudy Perpich.[^13] - **1990–2000.** Paul Wellstone (DFL) defeated Rudy Boschwitz on November 6, 1990.[^14] A Time Table row gives campaign spending in the race as "$7M vs. $1M" without stating which figure belongs to which candidate.[^14] Wellstone introduced his first Senate legislation in June 1991, on education access and veterans services.[^15] He was re-elected on November 7, 2000.[^16] - **1998–2002.** Norm Coleman (R) lost the 1998 governor's race to Jesse Ventura. On November 5, 2002, Coleman defeated Mondale, then 74 and running as an emergency replacement, for the seat Wellstone had held.[^17] - **2012–2026.** Amy Klobuchar was re-elected on November 6, 2012.[^4] Klobuchar ran for governor in 2026, which left the seat open.[^18] The Republican state convention endorsed Adam Schwarze in May 2026, and Peggy Flanagan and Angie Craig contested the DFL primary.[^19][^20] - **Censure.** The Senate's record of censure cases includes an entry for David Durenberger.[^21] - **Confirmations.** The Senate confirmed Warren Burger to the D.C. Circuit on March 28, 1956.[^5] It confirmed Harry Blackmun to the 8th Circuit on September 14, 1959, with an "exceptionally well qualified" rating.[^6] On May 12, 1970, it confirmed Blackmun to the Supreme Court, 94–0.[^6][^22] ### What - **1957.** The Senate passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 on August 29, 1957, by 72–18. It was the first such act since Reconstruction.[^23] - **1964.** The House passed H.R. 7152 on February 10, 1964, by 290–130 and sent it to the Senate.[^24] Senate debate opened on March 9, 1964, and a Southern filibuster began.[^9] Cloture followed on June 10.[^9] The Senate passed the Civil Rights Act on June 19, 1964, by 73–27, with Humphrey managing the bill on the floor.[^7] - **1965.** The Senate passed the Voting Rights Act on May 26, 1965, by 77–19.[^25] - **1966–1968.** Mondale began Senate work on fair housing in 1966 and later authored Title VIII.[^26] The Senate passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968 (H.R. 2516), including its fair housing provisions, on March 11, 1968.[^27] - **1979–1980.** Senator [[Ted Kennedy]] of Massachusetts introduced S. 643, the [[Refugee Act of 1980]], on March 13, 1979. The Senate passed it unanimously on March 4, 1980.[^28] Mondale was vice president at the time and was not the bill's Senate sponsor.[^28] - **1987.** Joint House–Senate select committees convened for the Iran-Contra hearings on May 5, 1987.[^29] - **1988.** On March 22, 1988, Congress overrode President Reagan's veto of the Civil Rights Restoration Act, 73–24 in the Senate and 292–133 in the House.[^30] - **1999.** The Senate acquitted President Clinton on both articles of impeachment on February 12, 1999. Minnesota's two senators, Wellstone and Grams, voted on opposite sides.[^2] ### When - **January 1949.** Humphrey introduced a package of federal civil rights legislation in the Senate.[^31] - **November 7, 1978.** Both of Minnesota's U.S. Senate seats, the governorship and control of the [[Minnesota Legislature]] changed parties in a single election.[^13] - **November 8, 1994.** In the midterm elections, Republicans won the Senate and, for the first time in 40 years, the House.[^32] ### How many - **1992.** The November 3, 1992 elections raised the number of women in the Senate from 2 to 6.[^33] Carol Moseley Braun (D-IL) became the first Black woman senator, and Dianne Feinstein, Barbara Boxer and Patty Murray were also elected. The Anita Hill hearings of October 1991 are cited as a catalyst.[^33] ## See also - [[Walter Mondale]] - [[Refugee Act of 1980]] - [[Ted Kennedy]] - [[Alexander Ramsey]] - [[Vice President of the United States]] - [[Minnesota Legislature]] - [[Republican Party (United States)]] - [[Democratic Party (United States)]] ## Notes [^1]: Wikipedia, *United States Senate* (rev. 1380979787, retrieved October 26, 2026) — composition, history, functions, qualifications, officers, procedure, office buildings, criticism. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate [^2]: U.S. Senate Historical Office, *The Senate's Impeachment Role* (n.d.) — Senate tries impeachments; acquittal of President Clinton on both articles, February 12, 1999. https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Senate_Impeachment_Role.htm [^3]: Wikipedia, *Edward J. Thye* (n.d.) — Thye elected to the U.S. Senate, November 5, 1946; Youngdahl succeeds as governor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_J._Thye [^4]: American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara, *2012 election statistics* (n.d.) — Klobuchar re-elected, November 6, 2012. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/statistics/elections/2012 [^5]: Federal Judicial Center, *Burger, Warren Earl* (n.d.) — Senate confirmation to the D.C. Circuit, March 28, 1956. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/burger-warren-earl [^6]: Federal Judicial Center, *Blackmun, Harry Andrew* (n.d.) — Senate confirmation to the 8th Circuit, September 14, 1959; later federal judicial service. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/blackmun-harry-andrew [^7]: U.S. Senate Historical Office, *Civil Rights Act of 1964* (n.d.) — Senate passage 73–27, June 19, 1964; Humphrey's floor management. https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/CivilRightsAct1964.htm [^8]: Minnesota Historical Society, *MNopedia: Ramsey, Alexander (1815–1903)* (n.d.) — Dakota allegations; Senate exoneration of Ramsey in 1854 despite evidence from its own investigations. https://www.mnhs.org/mnopedia/search/index/person/ramsey-alexander-1815-1903 [^9]: U.S. Senate, *Civil Rights Filibuster Ended* (n.d.) — debate on H.R. 7152 opened March 9, 1964; cloture invoked June 10, 1964, 71–29, the first time on civil rights. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/filibusters-cloture/civil-rights-filibuster-ended.htm [^10]: Wikipedia, *Hubert Humphrey* (n.d.) — election November 2, 1948; seated January 3, 1949; Labor Committee; 1954 re-election; Whip from 1961. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey [^11]: Wikipedia, *Walter Mondale* (n.d.) — appointment December 30, 1964; seated January 20, 1965; committee assignments; 1966 term, 53.9 percent. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Mondale [^12]: University of Minnesota Libraries, *Mondale Senate papers* (n.d.) — custody of Mondale's Senate papers. https://www.lib.umn.edu/collections/special/mondale [^13]: Star Tribune, *DFL's mishandling of 1976 Senate appointment led to party's "Minnesota Massacre"* (n.d.) — December 30, 1976 appointment; November 7, 1978 election results. https://www.startribune.com/dfl-s-mishandling-of-1976-senate-appointment-led-to-party-s-minnesota-massacre/462396333 [^14]: U.S. Senate, *Paul Wellstone* (n.d.) — 1990 election over Rudy Boschwitz; spending figures from Time Table row TL-0547 only. https://www.senate.gov/senators/114th_Congress/Wellstone.htm [^15]: Congress.gov, *Paul Wellstone, member profile W000228* (n.d.) — Wellstone's sponsored legislation from 1991. https://www.congress.gov/member/paul-wellstone/W000228 [^16]: American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara, *2000 election statistics* (n.d.) — Wellstone re-elected, November 7, 2000. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/statistics/elections/2000 [^17]: Minnesota Secretary of State, *Historical Election Data* (n.d.) — 1998 governor's race; Coleman over Mondale, November 5, 2002. https://www.sos.state.mn.us/election-administration-campaigns/data-maps/historical-election-data/ [^18]: CBS Minnesota, *Amy Klobuchar, Tim Walz and the Minnesota governor race* (2026) — Klobuchar moves from the Senate to the governor's race. https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/amy-klobuchar-tim-walz-minnesota-governor-race-logistics/ [^19]: MPR News, *Schwarze wins GOP endorsement in U.S. Senate race* (May 29, 2026) — Republican convention endorsement. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2026/05/29/schwarze-wins-gop-endorsement-in-us-senate-race [^20]: KARE 11, *Minnesota DFL primary for U.S. Senate heats up between Lt. Gov. Peggy Flanagan and Rep. Angie Craig* (2026) — DFL primary contest. https://www.kare11.com/article/news/politics/minnesota-dfl-primary-for-us-senate-heats-up-between-lt-gov-peggy-flanagan-and-rep-angie-craig/89-5fde0e39-7ce5-42d0-b665-ff1e08f37cbf [^21]: U.S. Senate, *Censure: David Durenberger* (n.d.) — Senate censure case entry. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/censure/141DavidDurenberger.htm [^22]: Justia, *Harry Blackmun* (n.d.) — Supreme Court confirmation 94–0, May 12, 1970. https://supreme.justia.com/justices/harry-blackmun/ [^23]: Wikipedia, *Civil Rights Act of 1957* (n.d.) — Senate passage 72–18, August 29, 1957. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957 [^24]: Wikipedia, *Civil Rights Act of 1964* (n.d.) — House passage of H.R. 7152, 290–130, February 10, 1964. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 [^25]: GovTrack, *Senate vote S78, 89th Congress (1965)* (n.d.) — Voting Rights Act passage 77–19, May 26, 1965. https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/89-1965/s78 [^26]: University of Minnesota Law Library, *Mondale collections: Civil rights and fair housing* (n.d.) — Mondale's Senate fair housing work from 1966; Title VIII. https://mondale-librarycollections.law.umn.edu/civil-rights-fair-housing [^27]: Wikipedia, *Civil Rights Act of 1968* (n.d.) — Senate passage of H.R. 2516, March 11, 1968. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968 [^28]: Congress.gov, *S. 643, 96th Congress (Refugee Act of 1979)* (n.d.) — Kennedy introduction, March 13, 1979; unanimous Senate passage, March 4, 1980. https://www.congress.gov/bill/96th-congress/senate-bill/643 [^29]: Congress.gov, *S. Res. 23, 100th Congress* (n.d.) — Senate select committee for the Iran-Contra inquiry; joint hearings from May 5, 1987. https://www.congress.gov/bill/100th-congress/senate-resolution/23 [^30]: Congress.gov, *S. 557, 100th Congress — Actions* (n.d.) — Civil Rights Restoration Act veto and override votes. https://www.congress.gov/bill/100th-congress/senate-bill/557/actions [^31]: Humphrey School of Public Affairs, *Dean reflections: legacy of Hubert Humphrey's 1948 civil rights speech* (n.d.) — January 1949 civil rights legislation package. https://www.hhh.umn.edu/news/dean-reflections-legacy-hubert-humphreys-1948-civil-rights-speech [^32]: American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara, *1994 election statistics* (n.d.) — Republican control of the House and Senate after November 8, 1994. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/statistics/elections/1994 [^33]: U.S. Senate Historical Office, *Year of the Woman* (n.d.) — women in the Senate rise from 2 to 6 in the November 3, 1992 elections; Moseley Braun, Feinstein, Boxer, Murray. https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/year_of_the_woman.htm